Alexander the Great

Introduction
Alexander's career is one of the turning points in history. He created for the Western world the monarchical ideal... No ruler had succeeded in making the person of the monarch respectable. Alexander made it sacred... He founded cities destined to become centers of Greek influence, the great majority in lands in which city life was almost unknown.For many centuries after Alexander's death Greek was the language of literature and religion, of commerce and of administration throughout the Near East. His empire perished at his death, but its central idea survived long after him - that of the municipal freedom of the Greek Polis within the framework of an imperial system.
In the East, Hellenism came in the train of the conqueror, and Rome was content to build on the foundation laid by Alexander. Genesis Born Alexander III was born in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedonia in 356 B.C. He was the son of Phillip II, King of Macedonia and Olympias, Princess of Epirus. They also had a daughter named Cleopatra who was very close to Alexander till his death. Considering his potential for greatness, King Phillip and Olympias arranged for the greatest intellectual minds of that time to educate Alexander. In Antiquity, this meant that he had to read the legendary poet Homer, who was regarded as the father of scholarship and all sciences. Alexander started to compare himself to the Homeric heroes and developed a rivalry with Achilles (who was, according to the legends, Alexander's ancestor). Other authors whose books the young man read were Herodotus of Halicarnassus and Xenophon, both writers of books about wars against the Persians. Alexander always slept with a copy of Homer’s Iliad under his pillow declaring that he honored it as a perfect portable treasure of all military virtue and knowledge. His first teacher was Leonidas who was instrumental in instilling in Alexander a frugal nature where he lived a simple life, like one of the many troops. Leonidas was replaced by Lysimachus who taught Alexander to appreciate the fine arts of music, drama and poetry. At the age of 13, King Phillip and Olympias seeking the finest education for their son hired Aristotle, the most renowned philosopher of his time. Aristotle educated Alexander at Mieza, a temple 20 miles from the palace of Pella. Under Aristotle, Alexander learned philosophy, ethics, politics, and healing, all of which became utmost important to him in his later life. Along with Alexander his compatriots were also taught under the guidance of Aristotle. His compatriots included his best friend Hephaestion, Perdiccas, Leonnatus, Craterus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus who served under him through all his conquests. The three years in Mieza were very significant in making him the Legend he became. Alexander was handsome, courageous and intelligent and was worshipped and adored by his soldiers, as most of the other people who met him. Alexander was a visionary and a dreamer and always knew he was born for greatness. Alexander enjoyed his liquor even though his weakness for wine caused some of his outbursts of rage. He was not like many of the other Kings, who were mainly interested in easy living and riches, what he truly wanted in his life was Glory and Valor. King Phillip expanded Macedonia and made it clear that his intentions were to unite Greece and be the leader of the pan-Hellenistic league. He had added Thrace, Chalcidice and Thessaly to his dominions. Some of the old city-states offered resistance, and in 338 B.C the Macedonians met the Athenians and Thebans in the battle at Chaeronea in central Greece. For a long time, the outcome of the battle was ambiguous, until the Macedonian Crown Prince Alexander led the Vanguards on a charge on the left wing, which decided the battle. King Philip returned to Pella in 336 B.C to attend his daughter's wedding. His daughter Cleopatra was getting married to King Alexander of Molossis, brother to Olympias. As the bridal party passed through the streets one of his bodyguards stabbed King Philip to death. The assassins were killed on the spot. Till date many believe that Olympias played a role in the death of King Phillip, as she was keen for her son to be king. King Philip had created a powerful army and developed a strong economy leaving the young Alexander a glorious legacy. King Philip had formed a new style of army, a standing army of soldiers who served the year-round. When not at war, the Macedonian army was barracked at state expense and underwent sophisticated training while in station. The Macedonian soldier was thus far better trained than any other in the world and much better equipped. No man is stronger than his army and no battle can be won without brilliant strategy. The Macedonian army was the strongest in the world because they were well trained. Alexander's Army & Strategies The Macedonian Phalanx was created by Phillip and further developed by Alexander. The Phalanx was a flexible unit well drilled and always ready for an array of formations and maneuvers. It was usually 16 men on a side, 256 men in each unit, always and exclusively Macedonian. They were armed with the Sarissa, a long spear which was about 12 to 18 feet. When held vertically, the wall of spears helped hide what was going on with the units behind the formation. When held horizontally, enemies could be killed at a safe range from the formation. In addition to the Phalanx, Alexander’s weapons consisted of spears, bows and arrows, swords, cavalry, chariots and some light and heavy armor and the siege train. Most important was his adoption of the siege train, which included 100 foot battering rams and 150 foot high siege towers with bridges. With all these weapons on his side Alexander’s army never lost any battles. Alexander was a military genius and exhibited remarkable personal gallantry. Alexander always led his men from the front and he was an expert at organizing his units for complex battle maneuvers, hiding the true numbers and make up of his forces, and managing his army during the flow of the battle. Leading from the front did have its downside as Alexander was wounded many a time. Alexander was injured in the neck and head at the Granicus River, in the thigh at Issus, the shoulder at Gaza, he suffered a broken leg in Turkestan, was wounded on three occasions in Afghanistan, and, most seriously, had his lung pierced by an arrow in India. Like other great generals, he knew and loved his men. He remembered their names and deeds, calling them by name when he would speak to them before a battle, citing their exploits. His veterans he sent home for a rest to Greece, allowing them to visit their families. He was liberal in his gifts and honours. As the victories amassed, his men came to believe that he was invincible and so did his enemies. All these factors helped in creating an army that simply could not be stopped. Its accomplishments so far eclipsed anything that had ever been done, Alexander and his men were unstoppable. Bucephalus T he mythical fable about Alexander’s horse is told to us by Plutarch. It is believed that one day Philoneicus, a Thessalian, brought a wild horse to King Phillip of Macedonia. King Phillip sent rider after rider to tame this beast but none of them were able to prevail over this mammoth beast. While King Phillip was upset at Philoneicus, Alexander, who was only 12 years old, was studying this Mighty Stallion. Alexander made a wager with his father that he could tame this horse, the condition being if he did tame the horse his father would buy it, and if he could not, Alexander would have to pay the price for the horse out of his own pocket. Amidst the laughter of the gathering crowd, Alexander set out to tame the beast. Alexander had noticed that the horse had been shying away from its own shadow, and so he tenderly led it into the sun, so that its shadow was behind it, all the while fondling it gently and whispering into its ear. Eventually the horse let Alexander mount it, while King Phillip and the crowd watched in awe and disbelief. After seeing this King Phillip was believed to have said “O my son, look thee out a kingdom equal to and worthy of thyself, for Macedonia is too little for thee.” Alexander went on to name his horse Bucephalus, which means ox-head as it had a rather large head. Bucephalus went on to be his companion through all his conquests and in every battle he led his troops into, Alexander was riding Bucephalus. They rode thousands of miles together and fought many great battles together and Bucephalus saved his life too very often. The King’s Stallion died of battle wounds in 326B.C in the battle of Jhelum in India. Alexander went on to name a city after his beloved horse, namely Bucephala in modern Jhelum. Alexander held a generous funeral, which he himself led. Alexander always knew that without the help of his wonderful horse, he would have never become Alexander the Great. The Journey Begins Alexander claimed the Macedonian throne after the murder of his father and settled the affairs of the kingdom soon after. His first task was to get recognition as the true descendant to his father’s throne. General Antipater, who had worked under his father arranged to have the whole army greet Alexander as the King and pledged his absolute support to the new King. King Alexander rewarded him by making him Commander of Macedonian forces in Europe, second only to the King. At this stage King Alexander also managed to secure the loyalty of General Parmenion, another trusted aide of his father’s, who also acted as an advisor to King Alexander. Alexander quickly disposed off the rebelling barbarians of the Thracian tribes and the Illyrians beyond the Danube and headed south to suppress the Thebes. There were rumors in these cities that Alexander had been killed, and that this would be the perfect time to separate themselves from Macedonia. In the fall of 335 B.C. Alexander marched up to the gates of Thebes, and let them know that it was not too late for them to change their minds. The Thebans responded with a small contingent of soldiers and Alexander resisted them with archers and light infantrymen. The next day, one of Alexander's Generals, Perdiccas, attacked the gates. There are conflicting reports by Arrian and Diodorus as to whether Alexander had given the signal to attack with the latter saying that he had. Regardless, the battle had commenced. Perdiccas broke through into the city, and Alexander moved the rest of his force in behind to prevent the Thebans from cutting Perdiccas off from the rest. The Macedonians then stormed the city, killing almost everyone in sight, women and children included. They plundered, sacked, burned and razed Thebes, as an example to the rest of Greece. Athens succumbed to Alexander and he came to terms with them to maintain the status quo as under his father. Alexander's main goal in Asia was leading a pan-Hellenic invasion of the Persian Empire to rid the world of oppression and tyranny, and he also sought revenge on the Persians for their invasion of Greece in 490 B.C. Alexander was eager on spreading Hellenism wherever he went. Every land he went on to conquer was given a dose of the Hellenistic culture. Alexander began his journey in the spring of 334 B.C and one of the many mysteries about him was whether he had intended to conquer the World from the beginning. His entourage included historians, scientists, artists, geographers and many more, all a class of mankind not required at all for a military mission. Alexander visited Troy, the site of the great victory of the Greeks over Asia. The visit was also due to personal interest, for he greatly admired Homer, as mentioned earlier, and the heroes of the Trojan War. It was a sparkling gesture, and he followed it with incisive diplomacy. Alexander and his closest friend Hephaestion took part in funeral games for the Homeric heroes Achilles, an ancestor of Alexander and as this was the customary thing to do. Alexander’s first real battle in Asia against the Persians under King Darius III was at the River Granicus. As the Persians had strong defense positions on one of the banks of the river, Alexander was forced to attack from a different angle. As the Persians never made any charges before their sacrifices at dawn, the Macedonians had a chance to move to the other bank during the night. The Persians, knowing they did not stand a chance against the Macedonian Phalanx launched a cavalry charge and attacked their rear but their charge was caught by Parmenion. Alexander’s archers and the Agrianians went directly against Memnon’s (Memnon of Rhodes, Commander of the Persian mercenaries) mercenaries and prevented them from joining the main battle. For a moment Alexander’s life was in danger but he was saved by one of his father’s Commanders, Cleitus the Black. The battle was soon over after the Macedonian Phalanx made quick work of the Persian infantry. Alexander continued to march south and freed the Greek cities from the Persian rule and thus established his position as the liberator of all men. Alexander met Parmenion at the town of Gordium, which was in Galatia, ancient capital of Phrygians. There he came across the ‘Gordian Knot’, the myth behind it being any man who could untie the knot was destined to become the ruler and master of the Asia. It was a very ordinary post and a very ordinary wagon tied to one another with an exception: the yoke was fastened to the pole with a complex of knots so meticulously scrambled that it was impossible to unravel them. Alexander marched up to the Acropolis and the wagon and set out to untie the knot. After trying for awhile Alexander took out his sword and simply slashed the knot thus unraveling it consequently revealing he would one day become the Master of Asia. The Battle Rages On After the defeat at Granicus, King Darius III regrouped and put Memnon of Rhodes as the supreme leader in the west. Their first step was to gain time as King Darius III managed to assemble a large army in order to face Alexander again. Alexander was in south Turkey when King Darius III came to face him. They were in the mountains, trying to find a safe passage to the sea. King Darius III managed to get in between and Alexander had to use his brilliant tactics to fight his way through. The Persians had increased their army to 2, 00,000 compared to 30,000 Greeks (ratio being 6:1). They met across a small river called the Pinarus, near the town of Issus. Fighting across a river was always going to be difficult, for the attacker has to wade through the water and climb the opposite bank before ever engaging the defender. Alexander led the right, which consisted of the Macedonian cavalry, while Parmenion led the Greeks on the left. Alexander outflanked the Persian left just as the Macedonian Phalanx smashed into the Persian center. The Cavalry came into the rear of the Persian Center, particularly into the Greek mercenaries. The battle was still at stake when Alexander led a charge straight at Darius himself. Seeing Alexander cutting his way through the Persians, obviously making for the King himself, Darius panicked and fled. Seeing the King abandoning the field, the Persian army was annihilated and finally collapsed. King Darius III fled while Alexander took control of his treasures and his family. Issus was the beginning of the end of Persian power in the Mediterranean and after Issus Alexander set his sights on defeating King Darius III once and for all and becoming the King of Kings. After defeating the large Persian army under King Darius III, Alexander needed the city of Tyre, which was situated on an island off the coast of modern Lebanon. The city was vital to Alexander’s larger plans as he required the city, to control the Eastern Mediterranean and provide him a secure port through which he could direct reinforcements and supplies. Even though his initial attempts failed, he tried to cut off supplies from the mainland. The city expecting Alexander stocked up on supplies. Alexander tried siege towers on ships but even that was sunk by the citizens with the help of huge boulders. Alexander then ordered the building of a mole, a land bridge from the mainland to the island which was 200 feet wide and could let his soldiers get close enough to let the siege engines do the damage. Even though the mole was not as useful as expected to be, the city ran short of supplies and after a seven month siege Tyre fell. Alexander who was furious that this one city put a severe halt to his plans, ordered his soldiers to pillage the city without any mercy. After a siege of four months, even Gaza fell to the Macedon King to show the people that nothing and no one could come in between Alexander and his destiny. Alexandria Alexander set foot on Egypt in 331B.C and was welcomed by the Egyptians who loathed the Persian rule. He was also honoured and made Pharaoh of Egypt. After his arrival he ordered a city to be designed and founded at the western mouth of the Nile. This great city which went on to become one of the key cultural centers in the Mediterranean world in the centuries to follow was named Alexandria. In the East, Hellenism came in the train of the conqueror, and Rome was content to build on the foundation laid by Alexander. The Final Encounter The battle of Gaugamela, named after the village it was fought in, was the decisive battle between Alexander and King Darius III for the Persian Empire. Even though the Euphrates route was more direct and easily accessible, Alexander chose to go via the River Tigris instead. This gave King Darius III time to raise a larger army and he also had the battlefield leveled to create space for his 200 scythed chariots, stakes, spikes and snares which were to be placed on either side of the plain to prevent Alexander's cavalry from encircling the Persian army. This was done at Arbela as King Darius III had an excellent supply base over there. The Macedonian battle plan was for Parmenion to hold the left wing, and Alexander to hold the right wing with the Companion cavalry. By moving to the right, Alexander would force the Persian left wing to move in the same direction (otherwise, they would be encircled). Knowing he would be out-flanked on both wings, Alexander adopted a formation somewhat like a hollow square, but echeloned forwards towards the right wing. The Persians here, attempting to outflank his position, momentarily thinned their formation, and Alexander immediately charged the weak spot in the Persian line, breaking it in two which led to the collapse of the Persian army. Although Mazeus (Persian Commander) put Parmenion in serious trouble at one stage, Parmenion was able to keep up the fighting spirit of his men and they stood their ground, enabling Alexander to lead the decisive charge and route King Darius III. King Darius III fled again as the Persian army were brought to their knees. Alexander’s army with 47,000 people had managed to defeat the Great Persian army with 2, 35,000 people. After plundering Arbela, Alexander marched towards Babylon, the largest and wealthiest city in the world. Mazeus the Commander surrendered the city that was now taken by the Macedonians which yielded Alexander with vast treasures of silver and gold. Now that Alexander had become ruler of one of the kingdoms of the ancient Near East, he had to rule. He appointed Mazeus as Satrap (Governor) of Babylonia; this man was the first of a number of Persians who held important offices under Alexander. After the reinforcements had arrived Alexander set off once to conquer the final four capitals of the Achaemenid Empire namely Susa, Persepolis, Pasargadae and Ecbatana. The Macedonian army reached Susa, where the Persian Commander Abulites surrendered the city and was reappointed Satrap of the region immediately. In 330 B.C Alexander entered Persepolis, capital of the Achaemenid Empire. Many inhabitants fled, some committed suicide, but the governor surrendered the town and its riches, and found himself reappointed. Alexander gave the town itself to his soldiers, who looted and plundered the city, except for the royal palace. At the same time Pasargadae, the religious capital of Persia, surrendered to the Macedonians. Before leaving Persepolis, Alexander ordered the palace to be burnt down, as an act of revenge for the burning of Athens in 480 B.C by the Persians. Even though the Persians had been punished for their destruction of Athens 150 years earlier, the Son of Zeus wanted universal recognition as the ‘King of Asia’, the title the Greeks had used for the ruler of the Achaemenid Empire. The Macedonian army then marched towards Ecbatana, the northern capital of the Achaemenid Empire. Alexander and his army reached Ecbatana in June only to find out that King Darius III had left a few days before. King Darius III, the King of Kings, King of Persia was now fighting for his survival as the reinforcements promised to him had not arrived. King Darius III, with the treasures of Ecbatana reached Bactria only to be arrested by his allies. The Satrap of Bactria, Bessus, was the second most important man in the Achaemenid Empire, next only to the King. The King must have thought he was safe there but was wrong and was arrested on his arrival and murdered by Bessus soon after. King Darius III was given a state funeral in Persepolis. Visions of Fate Alexander was accordingly confirmed as King of the World, King of the Macedonians, King of the Persians, Pharaoh of Egypt and the list was getting longer and longer. The army finally thought their crusade had ended but to their surprise Alexander had no intentions of discontinuing and for the first time complaints about his behavior were voiced. There were complaints coming in about his dressing as the Macedonians felt he was becoming Persian. Alexander started to wear a diadem, a girdle and a white and purple striped tunic. Several Greek authors believe that these were the Persian Royal vestments, but that is not the whole truth: Alexander had picked only three pieces of the royal clothes. When the Son of Zeus appeared in public, he was not riding in a chariot and nobody carried the sacred fire in front of him. While Alexander was trying to show the Persians just how much he wanted to be their King, he was offending the Macedonians at the same time. The Macedonians displeasure probably played a role in the conspiracy against the King, in which Philotas was accused. Philotas was the Commander of the Companion Cavalry, son of Parmenion, and thus one of the most important people in the Macedonian army. He was reported to have known about a plot to kill the King and not taken any action against it. If the soldiers attempt had failed nothing was lost but if they had succeeded either him or his father (Parmenion) would have become King. The Court found Philotas and the other soldiers guilty and they were executed. General Parmenion had been stationed in Ecbatana to control the road from the Mediterranean to the east, large sums of money and many troops. Fearing Parmenion would exact revenge for the execution of his son, Alexander sent an express messenger to Ecbatana, instructing the Commander of reinforcements to kill the General, before news of the death of his son was heard. Parmenion was killed, never knowing why such an order was given. Alexander walked on, suppressing opposition from the tribes’ people, and occupied the southern shore of the Caspian Sea. He entered Bactria and Sogdiana, behind the Hindu Kush mountain range, and marched as far as the Jaxartes River. Alexander captured Bessus (murderer of Darius), who was betrayed by Spitamenes, ruler of Sogdiana. Bessus was mutilated and handed over to Darius’ brother Oxhathres who had him executed. Another tragedy took place when one of Alexander’s’ commanders, Cleitus the Black offended him and in a drunken rage Alexander killed him on the spot. Knowing he made a big mistake, Alexander contemplated suicide and refused to talk to anyone for over a week. This did not sit well with the Macedonians who were moving further away from their legendary King. Alexander’s attempt to initiate Proskynesis, the courteous way to great one's superior in Persia which involved blown kisses and bows was also refused by the Macedonians and Greeks. Even though the Macedonians were forced to do it some refused and Alexander did not make any attempts to introduce it again, but it was used in the courts of his successors.

Marching into India

In 327 B.C Alexander was ready to begin his campaign and marched into India with the only cause being the excitement and intrigue of conquering a new land that he had heard only in fairy tales. Alexander felt it would be necessary to trim down the army he led through Persia so as to get acclimatized to the different terrain and climatic conditions, and also restructured his army with plenty of Persian cavalry. Alexander sent the troops with the luggage down the Kabul valley to Charsadda through the Khyber Pass under Hephaestion and Perdicass, while Alexander led a lighter faction of troops and cavalry up the valleys which join the Kabul valley from the north. Perdicass and Hephaestion built a bridge over the River Indus which facilitated entry into Punjab for Alexander. In spring of 326 B.C Alexander entered Taxila and King Taxiles prepared him supplies, elephants and troops in return for his help against his arch rival King Porus. King Porus, one of the most dominant Kings in India may have hoped that he was safe, because the river Hydaspes (Jhelum) was the border between his kingdom and that of Omphis, and in June, this river would swell because of the melting of the mountain snows and the beginning of the monsoon rains. On the left bank of the Hydaspes Alexander's army crossed the heavily protected river in spectacular manner during a night of torrential rain. Porus placed his elephants, an army unit that they had never encountered, before his infantry men, knowing that the Macedonian cavalry could not attack them because horses fear elephants unless they have had a special training. Seeing that his left wing chariots were outnumbered by the Macedonian cavalry, Porus moved his right wing chariots to the left. At that moment, the Macedonian cavalry commander, Coenus suddenly moved to the now undefended Indian right wing and encircled the enemy lines, attacking them in their rear. The Macedonian archers and phalanx started to kill the elephants' drivers. The animals panicked, fell back and from this moment on, the Indians were attacked from all sides. Not only did they have to defend themselves against the phalanx and their own elephants in front of them but in addition against the Macedonian cavalry in the rear. Alexander captured the wounded Porus and, like the other kings he had defeated, allowed him to continue to rule his country. He founded two cities there, Alexandria Nicaea (to celebrate his victory) and Bucephala (named after his horse Bucephalus, who died there); and Porus became his friend and ally. Alexander’s next goal was to reach the River Ganges, which was 400kms away. However when he gave his troops orders to cross Hydaspes, they refused. They had left Macedonia to conquer Persia, not only had they conquered them but they had annihilated Persia. They had seen their King start to behave like a Persian and had managed to tolerate his behaviour; they had come to India and fought the battle of Jhelum. In short they had gone with Alexander to the ends of the earth, but now they refused to go any further. Alexander was convinced by Coenus, who was made speaker by the soldiers, and by the evil omens sent by the Gods to return and rule his kingdom. To Alexander it was more important to stress that the Gods had been instrumental in his decision rather than his soldiers. Alexander had been very disappointed but had accepted their decision and did persuade them to travel south down the rivers Hydaspes and Indus so that they might reach the Ocean and ship his army back to Babylon. During this trip, Alexander sought out the Indian philosophers, the Brahmins, who were famous for their wisdom, and became close to an Indian sage, Calanus who became one of his advisors. He became legendary for centuries in India for being both a wise philosopher and a fearless conqueror.

Long Road Home Alexander and his army reached the mouth of the Indus in July 325 B.C and left the conquered portion of India to be governed by Porus and Taxila. The convergence of the Hydaspes and the Acesines brought them to another hostile tribe region. It was at one of these villages, village of Malli, that Alexander was seriously wounded. Alexander was wounded several times in this attack, the most harmful one being when an arrow pierced his breastplate and his ribcage. As the Macedon King lay wounded, he was saved by his officers in a narrow escape. This wound made Alexander suffer for the rest of his life as the arrow had penetrated his lung. Alexander soon recovered and decimated the village taking possession and adding it to the Macedonian satrapy of the Indus. The son of Zeus then attacked the ruler of the subsequent kingdom, King Musicanus, who failed to honor him, which led to him to invade the country. Alexander immediately attacked Musicanus' neighbor, King Oxicanus, who reigned near modern Sukkur. Going southward, Alexander attacked the mountain kingdom of King Sambus (Sambhu), which was situated between the Kirthar range and the Indus. Alexander then reached Patala, situated at the apex of the Indus delta, and the rajah of Patala abandoned his country and fled. He had believed that the Indus fleet should be used to explore this new world and try to find a water way between the Indus and the Persian Gulf. A great part of the land forces which had been already sent off under Craterus in the earlier summer was to sail under the Admiral Nearchus from the Indus mouth towards Persian Gulf, while Alexander intended to lead the land forces along the coast of Baluchistan and through the Gedrosian desert. Alexander lost nearly three fourth of his army due to the severe conditions of the desert and many diseases that were caught in India. They were in for a change of fortune when the surviving soldiers reached Carmania, as they were given a warm reception when they arrived in this prosperous country. Alexander subsequently set about to consolidate his empire and headed back into Persia. The empire had been destabilized by the years of his absence and many rumours of his death. In the following two years (326 B.C - 324 BC) many of his Satraps (Governors) were either replaced or executed due to various reasons. In 324 B.C Alexander returned to Susa, administrative capital of the Persian Empire. Alexander held a banquet to celebrate the conquest of the Persian Empire in grand style. In encouragement of his fusion of Macedonians and Persians into one common race, Alexander and many of his officers took Persian wives. Alexander married Barsine, daughter of King Darius III. This was his second wife as he had already married Roxanne, daughter of Oxyartes of Bactria. Hephaestion married Drypetis, another daughter of King Darius III. Craterus was ordered to marry Amastris, niece of Darius, while Perdiccas married daughter of Atropates, the great protector of the Zoroastrian religion. Artacama and Artonis, two daughters of Artabazus, one of the most influential Persians at Alexander's court, were married to Ptolemy and Eumenes. The festivities were marred by the death of Calanus, the Indian sage, who had been with Macedonian army since it conquered India, and had a played a pivotal role as Alexander’s mentor. Calanus was old and had a big funeral pyre erected where he burnt himself alive. This was the Indian way of completing one’s spiritual journey. In autumn 324 B.C Alexander’s best friend, most loyal companion and alleged lover Hephaestion died in Ecbatana of fever, and Alexander, totally devastated, indulged in profligate mourning, giving him a royal funeral in Babylon with a pyre costing 10,000 talents. His post of Chiliarch (grand vizier) was left unfilled. Alexander was overcome with grief and never appeared to get over the loss of the most important person in his life.

Sad Wings of Destiny

In the early part of 323 B.C, Alexander and his troops marched towards Babylon. Alexander’s plans for the future included preparations for war against the Arabs, which included modern Yemen, Jordan and southern Iraq. The invasion of Arabia was only the beginning as Alexander had in addition set his sights on Sicily, Italy and Carthage. The barbaric Carthagians had been behind the killing of his brother-in-law Alexander of Molossis and Alexander wanted to avenge his death. Upon reaching Babylon Alexander was greeted by several evil omens but nothing seemed to daunt the son of Zeus. The omens were so recurrent and menacing that Alexander feared that he had fallen out of favor with the gods. Alexander held a large banquet in honour of Admiral Nearchus’ departure for Arabia and then proceeded to an after party at the expense of his friend Medius of Larissa. Alexander had been drinking heavily throughout and the next morning the King was extremely ill. His condition worsened and on June 10th 323 B.C King Alexander the Great of Macedonia died of fever in Babylon at the young age of 32, few months shy of his birthday. The last few days before his death saw his men filing one by one for last glimpses of the Son of Ammon. Alexander III of Macedonia had ruled for 12 years and 8 months. There are many theories to the death of Alexander the Great, the most common one being poison. Many historians do believe he was poisoned but others including Plutarch and Aristobulus believe he died of fever. It is extremely hard to believe that the King of Kings, Master of Asia, Pharaoh of Egypt, King of Persia, King of Macedonia, Son of Zeus, and Son of Ammon had succumbed to a fever like his friend Hephaestion. Was it coincidence or a conspiracy? On his death bed Alexander was asked by Perdicass who he wished to leave his kingdom, to which he replied “To the Best” The arrangements for his funeral were vast and Ptolemy, childhood friend of Alexander, later transferred his body to Alexandria in Egypt. Ptolemy ordered the construction of a Golden Sacrophagus (large tomb) in honour of his friend. Alexander received divine honours from the Greek cities and in Egypt. After Alexander’s death, as there was no successor to the throne, it was divided amongst the Generals and his son Alexander IV, from his wife Roxanne. His kingdom was separated into many parts and due to many civil wars there was no one who could unite his Empire again. Seleucus and Ptolemy did however manage to build their own empires but none were able to achieve even half of what the Son of Ammon had accomplished.

Divine King
Alexander the God or the Legend? There has always been talk about the mysticism of Alexander the Great. Many historians will probably agree that he was not a God but whatever said he believed he was a God and was the son of Zeus Ammon, the Supreme God. Since the day he was born his mother Olympias, maintained that Phillip was not the father of her son and that he was the son of Zeus. Not only did Alexander want to compete with Hercules (who had visited the Temple centuries ago) by visiting the Temple of Ammon at Siwa, but he could also do so by following in his footsteps.
It is fairly understandable why Alexander wanted to depict this connection between the two as Hercules was the son of Zeus, and more importantly he also was a mortal who became a god. Creating a parallel to the life of Hercules would further strengthen Alexander's claim to be divine. By minting coins that related Alexander to Hercules, he was able to spread the message throughout his empire.Alexander’s characteristics are very interesting as he was inspired by Dionysius, Hercules, Achilles and Cyrus the Great. His actions on the other hand were steered by the spirit of Homer, who often appeared in his dreams and the Iliad, which he used as a manual for war. Alexander for ever and a day slept with a copy of the Iliad, under his bed, which was given to him by his father. His mother, Olympias had introduced him to the cult anonymities of Dionysius, who gave him his thirst and love for adventure. Alexander replicated Dionysius’ journey, only in reverse. Alexander was a superhuman warrior, and he always exposed himself to extreme danger during battles, leading his troops from the front, like Achilles. Like Hercules, Alexander had immense patience and could sustain pain, heat, cold, anguish and suffering. Alexander had great respect and admiration for Cyrus the Great, founder of the Persian Empire, whom he tried to emulate while creating his vast empire, by always respecting the religion and cultures of the dominated people. Alexander was a military genius and had incredible strategies depending on the situation. Even though he was brutal and tyrannical at times Alexander handled his men with an iron fist and feared no one. Alexander is probably the greatest history has ever seen and his imaginative tactics and warfare made him a legend that made him an icon inspiring other great men including Julius Caesar and Napoleon Bonaparte. The only ambition Alexander had was to attain Glory and Valor, and his ambition to spread Hellenism far into Central Asia even long after his death. Alexander had started out as a crusader, to punish the invasion and the destruction of the precious buildings and temples of Greece, but later spread the Hellenic ways of life throughout his empire. By establishing new cities (he founded 70) Alexander helped in improving communications and maintaining the Greek influence. The new cities, mainly inhabited by Greek mercenaries, introduced Macedonian methods of farming and agriculture to the mountain tribes. Alexander had designs for construction of buildings, dockyards, lighthouses, harbours, restoration of historical landmarks like temples, and proper irrigation systems for Babylon before his untimely death. Alexander had always given leading positions in his empire to Macedonians, followed by Persian Satraps. Unfortunately Alexander’s plans for unity of all forms of people never materialized as fate dealt him a lethal blow. However the influence and the impact of Alexander lived on for a long time and his achievements marked a decisive moment in the World history. His journey brought significant changes in geographical and natural history. Many of his successors tried to follow by his example, not only in war, but also by encouraging and spreading the Hellenic culture wherever they went. It is hard to believe that one man can accomplish all these feats in just 12 years of being a King, and 32 years of life. Many believe had he lived many more years, he would have conquered the whole human race. Why has this man been a God, hero, superhuman genius to so many people? Why have men been inspired by him, looked up to him and followed in his footsteps? The fact of the matter is Alexander the Great was not just an ordinary King, he was so much more. I have been inspired by this man who ruled tens of thousands of year back for who he was. He was very gallant in valor, extremely dynamic in nature, incredibly obstinate of honour, remarkably fond of incurring danger, and most importantly carrying out his duty as inculcated by the Gods. He never hesitated in making decisions, while others were still uncertain, which made him a league ahead of the rest. His willpower and strength of mind was perfect, close to none other. His motivation of his soldiers was unmatchable, whom he led with great boldness. He never spent the finances acquired for his own pleasures, as the luxuries of the world were not on his priority list. He would rather prefer spending it on his Empire and his people. These are some of the features that differentiate Great men from supernatural or divine beings. Alexander the Great His name struck fear into hearts of Men Alexander the Great Became a God amongst mortal Men